History of Drug Misuse in Central Africa

Drug misuse and trafficking have been ongoing issues in Central Africa for several decades. The region has become a transit point for illegal drugs, particularly for cocaine and heroin, en route to other markets in Europe and Asia. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Central Africa has seen a significant increase in the trafficking of these drugs in recent years. For example, in 2019, UNODC reported that seizures of cocaine in Central Africa had risen by over 400% since 2016, and that the region had become an increasingly important transit point for the drug.

Drug trafficking in Central Africa is often linked to organized crime and corruption. Criminal networks, often operating across borders, are involved in the production, transportation, and distribution of drugs in the region. According to the UNODC, these networks have been able to exploit weak governance and security in the region to establish themselves and operate with relative impunity. This has had a detrimental impact on the region’s security and development, as well as on the lives of individuals and communities affected by drug abuse and trafficking.

In addition to drug trafficking, there is also a growing problem of drug abuse among young people in Central Africa, particularly in urban areas. According to a study by the World Health Organization (WHO), the most commonly used drugs in the region include cannabis, traditional drugs, and prescription drugs. However, there are also reports of increasing use of harder drugs such as cocaine and heroin. This problem is exacerbated by a lack of resources and capacity within the law enforcement and healthcare systems, which makes it difficult for authorities to effectively address the issue.

Efforts to tackle drug misuse and trafficking in Central Africa have been undertaken by national governments and international organizations. However, these efforts have been hindered by a lack of resources, capacity, and coordination, as well as by the complex nature of the problem. The UNODC, for example, has been working with Central African countries to strengthen their law enforcement and judicial capacities to combat drug trafficking and organized crime, as well as to provide support for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse.

In conclusion, drug misuse and trafficking are ongoing issues in Central Africa, with the region becoming an increasingly important transit point for illegal drugs. The problem is linked to organized crime and corruption, and it has had a detrimental impact on the region’s security and development. Additionally, there is a growing problem of drug abuse among young people in the region, particularly in urban areas, which is exacerbated by a lack of resources and capacity within the law enforcement and healthcare systems.

Here are some references that provide information on the history of drug misuse and trafficking in Central Africa:

-United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2019). World Drug Report 2019. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/wdr2019/prelaunch/WDR19_Booklet_2_EXSUM.pdf

-United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2020). Central Africa: Drug trafficking and related organized crime. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/cntryprofiles/centralafrica/index.html

-United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2020). Central Africa: Drug trafficking and related organized crime. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/cntryprofiles/centralafrica/index.html

-World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Substance use in Africa: An overview. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/africa_overview_2017.pdf

-Maroyi, A. (2015). Substance abuse in Africa: A review of the literature. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 47(4), 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2015.1054198

-Decker, S., & Pyrooz, D. (2012). Transnational street gangs and African youth. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 28(1), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986211409270

These references provide information on the history of drug misuse and trafficking in Central Africa, and the challenges and efforts to address the issue.

History of Drug Misuse in North Africa

Drug use has been a part of North African culture for centuries. One of the most well-known traditional drugs in the region is khat, a plant native to the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The leaves of the khat plant contain cathinone, a stimulant that is similar in structure to amphetamines. Khat is typically chewed or brewed, and its use is associated with social and cultural rituals in countries such as Yemen, Somalia, and Ethiopia. In North Africa, the use of khat is most prevalent in countries such as Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco, where it is traditionally consumed by men in social settings.

Cannabis, also known as marijuana or hashish, has a long history of use in North Africa. The plant is believed to have originated in Central Asia and has been used for recreational and medicinal purposes for thousands of years. In North Africa, cannabis is grown in countries such as Morocco and Algeria, where it is used to produce hashish, which is then smuggled to other countries. The use of cannabis is also common among young people and marginalized groups in the region.

In recent years, the region has seen an increase in the use of synthetic drugs such as opioids, as well as the trafficking of drugs from other parts of the world. The countries of the Maghreb, which includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, have become a transit point for drugs smuggled from Latin America to Europe. This is because of their geographic location, which allows traffickers to take advantage of the porous borders and weak law enforcement in the region.

To combat the problem of drug trafficking, North African countries have started to take steps to improve their law enforcement capabilities. For example, Morocco has implemented a number of measures to reduce the cultivation of cannabis, such as increasing the number of patrols and setting up specialized units to combat drug trafficking. Tunisia has also started to take steps to improve its border security, including the deployment of more border guards and the use of new technology to detect drugs.

References:

History of Drug Misuse in South Africa

Drug misuse in South Africa has a long and complex history, spanning several centuries and involving a variety of substances. The earliest known instance of drug use in the region was during the colonial period, when European settlers introduced opium and other substances to the indigenous population. This was primarily for the purpose of labor control and social control, as the colonizers sought to exert control over the local population.

During the apartheid era (1948-1994), drug use, particularly among Black South Africans, became prevalent in marginalized communities. The apartheid government’s response to drug use was primarily punitive, with harsh penalties for possession and distribution. This led to the criminalization of drug use and the marginalization of already marginalized communities. This approach was not only ineffective in addressing the issue but also further perpetuated the social and economic inequalities caused by apartheid.

In the post-apartheid era, South Africa has continued to struggle with high rates of drug use and drug-related crime. The most commonly used drugs are marijuana and methamphetamine, also known as “tik.” This is particularly prevalent in the Western Cape province.

The government has shifted towards a more harm reduction-based approach to addressing drug use in recent years, with the implementation of measures such as needle exchange programs and methadone maintenance therapy. However, implementation has been hindered by a lack of resources, political will, and a lack of understanding of harm reduction strategies among policymakers and law enforcement officials.

The opioid crisis has also become a growing problem in South Africa in recent years, with an increasing number of people becoming addicted to prescription painkillers and heroin. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated this issue, as the economic crisis caused by the pandemic has led to more people turning to drugs as a way to cope with the stress and uncertainty.

The issue of drug misuse in South Africa is multi-faceted and requires a comprehensive, evidence-based approach that addresses the social and economic factors that contribute to drug use. This includes addressing poverty, unemployment, and inequality, as well as providing access to education, healthcare, and other social services.

References:

  1. Pillay, R., & Parry, C. D. H. (2015). Drug use and drug policy in South Africa: a review. African Journal of Drug and Alcohol Studies, 14(1), 1-14.
  2. Parry, C. D. H., & Campbell, C. (2008). Drugs and poverty in South Africa: A review of the literature. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 40(3), 237-244.
  3. Moosa, M. Y. (2020). Harm reduction and opioid substitution therapy in South Africa. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 52(1), 1-11.
  4. Wood, E., Werb, D., Small, W., Strathdee, S. A., Li, K., Montaner, J., … & Kerr, T. (2018). The opioid overdose epidemic in Canada: a call to action. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 190(2), E55-E64.

History of Drug Misuse in China

Drug misuse in China has a long and complicated history. The opium trade, which began in the early 19th century, played a significant role in shaping the country’s modern drug problems. The opium trade was initially brought to China by Western traders, who sought to balance trade deficits by exporting opium to China. This led to a widespread addiction among the Chinese population, which in turn led to a series of wars known as the Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860). The Chinese government, unable to stop the import of opium, was ultimately defeated in these wars and was forced to legalize the drug.

During the early 20th century, the Chinese government implemented strict drug control laws and successfully reduced opium use. However, the use of other drugs, such as heroin and methamphetamine, began to rise in the latter half of the century. In the 1960s and 1970s, heroin became a major problem in China, particularly in the southern provinces. This was due in part to the Golden Triangle, a region in Southeast Asia that was a major source of opium and heroin. In response to this problem, the Chinese government implemented a series of measures, including law enforcement and treatment and rehabilitation programs.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the non-medical use of prescription drugs and synthetic drugs in China. Prescription drugs such as sedatives and painkillers have become increasingly popular among drug users. Synthetic drugs, such as ketamine and fentanyl, have also become increasingly prevalent.

In response to these issues, the Chinese government has implemented a number of measures to combat drug misuse. These include law enforcement, treatment and rehabilitation programs, as well as public education campaigns. The government has also increased cooperation with other countries to combat drug trafficking and has made efforts to address the root causes of drug addiction, such as poverty and lack of education.

References:

  1. “Opium Wars.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2021.
  2. “Drug Abuse in China.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 21 Dec. 2016. Web. 18 Jan. 2021.
  3. “China’s War on Drugs.” Council on Foreign Relations. Council on Foreign Relations, 22 Dec. 2017. Web. 18 Jan. 2021.
  4. “China’s War on Drugs: What’s Really Happening?” The Diplomat. The Diplomat, 25 Apr. 2017. Web. 18 Jan. 2021.

History of Drug Misuse in Russia

Drug misuse has a long and complex history in Russia, dating back to the Soviet era. During that time, the government heavily restricted access to drugs and punished possession and use severely. Possession of even small amounts of drugs could result in long prison sentences. However, despite these strict laws, drug use persisted and even increased in some instances. According to a report by the World Health Organization (WHO), drug use in the Soviet Union was relatively low in the 1970s and 1980s, but began to rise in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought significant changes to Russia, including economic turmoil and a breakdown of law enforcement. These factors, along with the opening of borders and the emergence of organized crime, led to a significant increase in drug trafficking and abuse. According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the number of drug-related arrests in Russia increased by more than 500% between 1991 and 1998.

One of the most significant changes during this period was the increase in heroin use. According to the WHO, the number of people who reported using heroin in Russia increased from around 100,000 in 1990 to over 1 million in 2000. This was due in part to the fact that Afghanistan, the world’s largest producer of opium, became more accessible to traffickers following the fall of the Taliban in 2001.

In recent years, the Russian government has implemented stricter measures to combat drug misuse, including harsher penalties for possession and trafficking, as well as increased funding for drug treatment and education programs. In 2016, Russia’s Federal Narcotics Control Service reported that it had seized more than 20 tons of drugs in the first half of the year, a 70% increase from the previous year.

Despite these efforts, the problem of drug misuse in Russia remains significant. According to the UNODC, Russia has one of the highest rates of opioid use in the world, with an estimated 2.5 million people using opioids in 2016. Heroin is the most commonly used opioid in Russia, and is responsible for a large proportion of overdose deaths in the country.

In conclusion, drug misuse has a long history in Russia, dating back to the Soviet era. Despite government efforts to combat the problem, drug trafficking and abuse continue to be significant issues in the country, particularly with regards to heroin and opioid use.

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History of Illegal Drug Trade between the United States, Mexico and South America

The history of illegal drug trade between the United States, Mexico, and South America is a long and complex one that spans several decades. The trade in illegal drugs between these regions dates back to the early 20th century, when opium and other drugs were smuggled into the United States from Mexico and South America. However, the illegal drug trade between these regions truly took off in the 1970s, when the demand for drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, and heroin began to rise in the United States.

Mexico has been a major player in the illegal drug trade for decades. Mexican drug traffickers have been involved in the production, transportation and distribution of illegal drugs, such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin and methamphetamines, to the United States. According to the US Department of Justice, Mexican criminal organizations are responsible for the majority of the illicit drugs that enter the US. They have been known to use various methods of transportation including cars, boats, trains, and even tunnels to smuggle drugs into the US.

South America, particularly Colombia, also became major producers and suppliers of these drugs to the United States. The Colombian cartels controlled a large portion of the drug trade, producing and exporting large quantities of cocaine and other drugs to the United States through various smuggling routes. The United States government, under the Reagan administration, initiated a number of initiatives, such as the War on Drugs in the 1980s, to try to curb the flow of illegal drugs into the country, but these efforts had limited success.

In the 1990s, the illegal drug trade shifted towards Mexico, as Colombian cartels were dismantled, and Mexican criminal organizations grew in power and influence. The Mexican criminal organizations have become powerful transnational criminal organizations, controlling much of the illegal drug trade and other criminal activities in the region.

The illegal drug trade between these regions continues to be a major problem to this day, with Mexico and South America still being major producers and suppliers of illegal drugs to the United States. Despite various efforts by the US government to curb the flow of illegal drugs, such as the Merida Initiative, a partnership between the US and Mexico aimed at combatting drug trafficking and organized crime, the illegal drug trade continues to be a major problem. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the value of the global illicit drug market was estimated to be around $435 billion in 2019.

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History of illicit drug trade between South America and Europe

The history of illicit drug trade between South America and Europe dates back to the early 20th century, when opium, which was primarily grown in the Andean region of South America, was transported to Europe via various routes. The opium trade was primarily controlled by criminal organizations, and was associated with violence and corruption.

In the latter half of the 20th century, the focus of the drug trade between South America and Europe shifted towards cocaine. Colombia, in particular, became one of the major producers and exporters of the drug, with much of it being smuggled into Europe via a variety of routes. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Europe is one of the main destinations for cocaine smuggled from South America, with the majority of seizures taking place in Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands.

The illicit drug trade between South America and Europe is primarily conducted by criminal organizations, which often use violence and corruption to maintain control of the trade. These organizations often have ties to other criminal activities, such as money laundering, extortion, and human trafficking.

Efforts to combat the drug trade between South America and Europe have been ongoing for decades. For example, in the 1990s, the United States, in partnership with several South American countries, launched “Plan Colombia,” a strategy to combat the drug trade in Colombia. This plan included a range of measures, such as providing military and economic aid to the Colombian government, as well as funding for anti-narcotics programs.

Similarly, the European Union has implemented a number of measures to combat the drug trade between South America and Europe. This includes efforts to strengthen law enforcement cooperation between member states, as well as initiatives aimed at reducing demand for drugs in Europe.

Despite these efforts, the drug trade between South America and Europe continues to be a significant problem. The UNODC estimates that the global coca cultivation has increased by 52% between 2013 and 2017, with Colombia remaining the main source of the illicit coca leaf, used to produce cocaine. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) reported that in the Europe, the number of seizures of cocaine continues to increase, reaching record levels in 2018.

In conclusion, the illicit drug trade between South America and Europe has a long history that goes back to the early 20th century, primarily focused on opium and later on cocaine. The trade is primarily controlled by criminal organizations that often use violence and corruption to maintain control of the trade. Despite ongoing efforts to combat the trade, it continues to be a significant problem for both South America and Europe.

References:

  • “Opium and coca: the evolution of illicit drug trade” by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
  • “Cocaine trafficking and drug abuse in Europe” by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
  • “Drugs in Europe” by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
  • “Plan Colombia” by the U.S. Department of State
  • “Coca cultivation in Colombia” by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
  • “Seizures of Cocaine in Europe reach record levels” by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
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History of Cocaine in South America

Cocaine has a long and complicated history in South America, dating back to the indigenous people who have used the coca plant for medicinal and spiritual purposes for thousands of years. The coca leaf, which is the raw material for cocaine, has been a part of Andean culture for centuries, and it is still used today in traditional medicine, religious ceremonies, and as a stimulant to counteract the effects of altitude sickness.

In the 19th century, European and North American doctors began to use coca leaves as a stimulant and pain reliever. This was due in part to the work of a German chemist named Albert Niemann, who in 1859, isolated the alkaloid that we now know as cocaine from the coca leaves. This made it possible to produce the drug on a large scale, and it quickly became popular as a medicine and a recreational drug.

The use of cocaine began to decline in the early 20th century as other drugs such as amphetamines became available. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there was a resurgence of interest in cocaine, and it became a major problem in many countries, particularly in the United States. This led to increased demand for coca leaf production in South America, particularly in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. The illegal production of cocaine has caused many social and economic problems in these countries, including violence, corruption, and environmental destruction.

In Colombia, the illegal coca cultivation has been linked to the rise of armed groups, including guerrilla and paramilitary groups, as well as drug cartels, who control large portions of the coca cultivation and cocaine production. This has led to a long-running armed conflict that has caused immense suffering for the civilian population.

In Peru, the coca leaf is a traditional part of the culture, and the government has attempted to promote the legal cultivation of coca for traditional and medicinal uses, while also cracking down on illegal coca cultivation and cocaine production. However, the problem remains a significant one. In Bolivia, The coca leaf has been used for centuries by indigenous people, and it is an important part of their culture and economy. The Bolivian government has also attempted to legalize the traditional use of the coca leaf, while also cracking down on illegal coca cultivation and cocaine production.

In all three countries, the illegal production of cocaine has caused many social and economic problems, and it continues to be a major issue for the region.

References:

  1. “Coca and Cocaine: An Andean Perspective”, by Luis Eduardo Luna and Pablo Amaringo.
  2. “Coca, Cocaine, and the Bolivian Reality”, by Eduardo Posada-Carbo.
  3. “Coca and Cocaine: An Andean Perspective”, by Luis Eduardo Luna and Pablo Amaringo.
  4. “Cocaine: Global Histories”, by Paul Gootenberg.
  5. “Drugs and Democracy in Latin America: The Impact of U.S. Policy”, by Coletta A. Youngers and Eileen Rosin

History of Drug Misuse in Europe

Drug misuse in Europe has a long and complex history that spans several centuries. The use of drugs for medicinal and religious purposes can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. In the Middle Ages, the use of opium and other drugs was prevalent in Europe, and by the 19th century, opium and cocaine were widely used in European society. In the early 20th century, the use of amphetamines and barbiturates became more common, with many individuals using these drugs to increase productivity and improve mood.

The 1960s and 1970s saw the rise of the counterculture movement, which led to an increase in the use of drugs such as marijuana and psychedelics. This period is also associated with the beginning of the opioid epidemic in Europe, as heroin started to be widely used in cities like London and Paris. In the 1980s and 1990s, the use of crack cocaine became a major issue in many European cities, particularly in the United Kingdom and Spain.

Today, the most commonly used drugs in Europe are cannabis, cocaine, and ecstasy. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the European Union, with about 20% of adults aged 15-34 having used it in the last year. Cocaine is the second most commonly used drug in Europe, with about 5% of adults in the EU having used it in the last year. Ecstasy is the third most commonly used drug, with about 2% of adults in the EU having used it in the last year.

In recent years, the misuse of prescription drugs and synthetic drugs has also become a growing problem in Europe. According to the EMCDDA, the non-medical use of prescription drugs, particularly opioids, is a significant concern in several European countries. The rise of new psychoactive substances (NPS) or synthetic drugs is also a concern, as these drugs are often more potent and dangerous than traditional drugs.

Efforts to address drug misuse in Europe include harm reduction strategies, such as needle exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy, as well as law enforcement and education campaigns. The EMCDDA also provides important data, information, and analysis on the drug situation in Europe, which is used to inform and support European Union and national drug policies.

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History of Drug Misuse in Canada

Drug misuse in Canada has a long and complex history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, opium and cocaine were widely available and used for both medicinal and recreational purposes. Opium, in particular, was commonly used as a pain reliever and was available in a variety of forms, including pills, tinctures, and smoking mixtures. Cocaine, on the other hand, was often used as a stimulant and was marketed as a cure for a variety of ailments, including fatigue, headaches, and depression.

However, as the negative effects of these drugs became more apparent, the government began to enact stricter drug control laws. The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act of 1908 prohibited the import, manufacture, and sale of opium for anything other than medicinal purposes. Similarly, the Narcotic Control Act of 1911 made it illegal to possess, produce, or sell opium, cocaine, and other drugs without a license.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Canada continued to strengthen its drug control laws. The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act was amended in 1920 to prohibit the import and export of opium, and in 1923, the Narcotic Control Act was amended to include harsher penalties for drug offenses. By the mid-20th century, the use of recreational drugs had become stigmatized and criminalized.

However, in the 1960s and 1970s, there was a resurgence of drug use, particularly among youth. This was partly due to the counterculture movement of the time, which rejected traditional social norms and encouraged experimentation with drugs. The government responded by increasing law enforcement efforts to combat drug trafficking, but this approach did not address the underlying social and economic factors that contribute to drug addiction. As a result, rates of drug use and overdose continued to rise.

In recent years, there has been a shift towards a more harm reduction-based approach to addressing drug misuse. This approach recognizes that addiction is a complex issue that cannot be solved through criminalization alone, but rather it requires a multifaceted approach that addresses the social and economic determinants of addiction. This includes expanding access to harm reduction services, such as needle exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy, as well as increasing funding for research, prevention, and treatment of addiction.

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